A Research Paper on American Airlines Flight 587 Essay Example for Free

A Research Paper on American Airlines Flight 587 Essay The airplane’s engines also separated in flight and were found several blocks north and east of the main wreckage site. All 260 people aboard the airplane and 5 people on the ground were killed, and the airplane was destroyed by impact forces and a post-crash fire. Flight 587 was operating under the provisions of 14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 121 on an instrument flight rules flight plan. Visual meteorological conditions prevailed at the time of the accident. The accident airplane was delivered new to American Airlines on July 12, 1988. At the time of the accident, the airplane had accumulated 37,550 flight hours and 14,934 cycles. History of Airbus A300 The development of the A300 airplane began in May 1969, and the first flight of an A300 occurred in October 1972. The A300B2 and A300B4 models entered service in May 1974 and June 1975, respectively. The development of the A300-600 series airplane (a derivative of the A300B2/B4) began in December 1980, the first flight of an A300-600 occurred in July 1983, and the airplane was certificated in March 1984. Before the accident, 242 A300-600 series airplanes were in service worldwide. The A300-605R is one of several variants of the A300-600 series airplane. The â€Å"5† refers to the type of engine installed on the airplane and the â€Å"R† refers to the airplane’s ability to carry fuel in the horizontal stabilizer. (National Transportation Safety Board [NTSB], 2004, p. 14) First Officer Information The first officer, Stan Molin age 34, was hired by American Airlines in March 1991. He held an ATP certificate and an FAA first-class medical certificate dated October 18, 2001, with a limitation that required him to wear correcting lenses while exercising the privileges of the certificate. The first officer received a type rating on the A300 in November 1998. According to American Airlines records, the first officer had flown Shorts 360, Beechcraft 99, and DeHavilland DHC-6 airplanes in commuter and regional operations under 14 CFR Parts 121 and 135. He had accumulated 3,220 hours total flying time in commercial and general aviation before his employment with American Airlines. American Airlines records also indicated that the first officer had accumulated 4,403 hours total flying time, 26 including 1,835 hours as an A300 second-in-command. (National Transportation Safety Board [NTSB], 2004, p. 1) Rudder Structure The A300-600 vertical stabilizer and rudder were constructed with composite materials, that is, mixtures that contain two or more distinct materials that are unified into one combined material. (NTSB, 2004, p. 15) Composite materials Carbon fiber is a form of graphite in which these sheets are long and thin. You might think of them as ribbons of graphite. Bun ches of these ribbons like to pack together to form fibers, hence the name carbon fiber. These fibers arent used by themselves. Instead, theyre used to reinforce materials like epoxy resins and other thermosetting materials. We call these reinforced materials composites because they have more than one component. Carbon fiber reinforced composites are very strong for their weight. Theyre often stronger than steel, but a whole lot lighter. Because of this, they can be used to replace metals in many uses, from parts for airplanes and the space shuttle to tennis rackets and golf clubs. (Carbon Fiber, 2005, p. 1) Rudder Structural Analyses NASA-Langley’s and Airbus’ analyses determined that the fracture of the right rear main attachment lug was the most probable initial failure. The analyses indicated that, The vertical stabilizer fractured from the fuselage in overstress, starting with the right rear lug while the vertical stabilizer was exposed to aerodynamic loads that were about twice the certified limit load design envelope and after the right rear main attachment lug fractured, all of the remaining attachment fittings would fracture with no increase in external loading. (NTSB, 2004, p. 115) Flight Control System The A300B2/B4 model used a rudder control system employing a Variable Lever Arm (VLA) to limit rudder travel. A similar rudder-ratio changer design is also found in most other transport category aircraft. The VLA limited the amount of rudder available to the pilot as the airplane’s speed increased. The rudder pedals consistently moved the same physical distance, yielding a proportion of rudder relative to speed. In 1988, Airbus implemented a completely new rudder design, which significantly modified the function of the previous model and hence, the handling qualities of the new A300-600 airplane design. This new system used a variable stop actuator (VSA) which is also found in the MD-80. The VSA also limited the amount of rudder available to the pilot. The difference in this system is that the distance which the rudder pedals moved also decreased as the rudder movement decreased in proportion to speed. A significant flaw in the design failed to offer the same kind of protection as in the McDonnell design. The MD-80 limits rudder travel and affords protection in the form of rudder â€Å"blow down† should an operator demand more rudder travel (with resultant excessive load) than the structure can withstand. These kinds of redundant system designs are common in commercial aviation. The Airbus Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) addresses the rudder system much like any other manufacturer and, in fact, did not change the language of the FCOM even after changing the A300 design from the VLA to the VSA system. (Allied Pilots Association, 2002, p. 9) Blow-Down System On an aircraft equipped with a hinge moment limiting (or â€Å"blow-down†) system, a device is employed to limit the force capability of the hydraulic actuators, and thereby aerodynamic forces limit the maximum rudder deflection output as airspeed or aircraft configuration changes. American Airlines, 2004, p. 11) Vortices and Wake Turbulence Vortices form because of the difference in pressure between the upper and lower surfaces of a wing that is operating at a positive lift. Since pressure is a continuous function, the pressures must become equal at the wing tips. The tendency is for particles of air to move from the lower wing surface around the wing tip to the upper surface (from the region of high pressure to the region of low pressure) so that the pressure becomes equal above and below the wing. In addition, there exists the oncoming free-stream flow of air approaching the wing. If these two movements of air are combined, there is an inclined inward flow of air on the upper wing surface and an inclined outward flow of air on the lower wing surface. The flow is strongest at the wing tips and decreases to zero at the mid-span point as evidenced by the flow direction there being parallel to the free-stream direction. When the air leaves the trailing edge of the wing, the air from the upper surface is inclined to that from the lower surface, and helical paths, or vortices, result. A whole line of vortices trails back from the wing, the vortex being strongest at the tips and decreasing rapidly to zero at mid-span. A short distance downstream, the vortices roll up and combine into two distinct cylindrical vortices that constitute the tip vortices. The tip vortices trail back from the wing tips and they have a tendency to sink and roll toward each other downstream of the wing. Again, eventually the tip vortices dissipate, their energy being transformed by viscosity this change may take some time and may prove to be dangerous to other aircraft. The tip vortices cause additional down flow (or downwash) behind the wing within the wingspan. For an observer fixed in the air, all the air within the vortex system is moving downward (called down wash) whereas all the air outside the vortex system is moving upward (called up wash). An aircraft flying perpendicular to the flight path of the airplane creating the vortex pattern will encounter up wash, downwash, and up wash in that order. The gradient, or change of downwash to up wash, can become very large at the tip vortices and cause extreme motions in the airplane flying through it. An airplane flying into a tip vortex also has a large tendency to roll over. If the control surfaces of the airplane are not effective enough to counteract the airplane roll tendency, the pilot may lose control or, in a violent case, experience structural failure. (Langley Research Center, 2005, Chapter 4) The takeoff and landings of the new generation of jumbo jets compound the problems of severe tip vortices. During takeoff and landing, the speed of the airplane is low and the airplane is operating at high lift coefficients to maintain flight. The atmospheric conditions aloft were favorable for a slow rate of vortex decay. The wake vortex from Japan Air Lines flight 47 would have had an age of about 100 seconds, and flight 587 would have encountered the wake vortex at a time before vortex linking and rapid vortex decay. The predicted circulation of the wake vortex at the times of the apparent encounters would have been between 63 and 80 percent of the vortex’s initial strength. In testimony at the public hearing, the main author of the wake vortex investigation report stated that, even though his ork supported a wake encounter, the wake was â€Å"nothing extraordinary. †(NTSB, 2004, p. 57) Aircraft Pilot Coupling Aircraft pilot coupling (APC) was previously known as Pilot Involved Oscillation (PIO). An APC event is when the dynamics of the aircraft (including the flight control system [FCS]) and the dynamics of the pilot combine to produce an unstable pilot vehicle system. APC events can result if the pilot i s operating with a behavioral mode that is inappropriate for the task at hand, and such events are properly ascribed to pilot error. However, the committee believes that most severe APC events attributed to pilot error are the result of adverse APC that misleads the pilot into taking actions that contribute to the severity of the event. (Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems National Research Council, 1997, p. 14) APC problems are often associated with the introduction of new designs, technologies, functions, or complexities. New technologies, such as FBW and fly-by-light flight control systems, are constantly being incorporated into aircraft. As a result, opportunities for APC are likely to persist or even increase. (Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems National Research Council, 1997, p. 19) Flight 587 APC Event What the pilots of Flight 587 did not know was that the rudder controls on the A300-600 become increasingly sensitive as airspeed increases above 165 knots; this unique sensitivity creates adverse APC propensities primarily in the lateral axis. Flight AA587’s APC event was triggered by an unexpectedly sensitive response of the rudder to an initial, single pedal input by the pilot during a wake vortex encounter. Due to the unique characteristics in the aircraft’s flight control system design, the pilot became caught in an adverse APC/pilot involved oscillation mode as he attempted to counter the effects of that input. Specifically, after making a control wheel input followed by a rudder input intended to achieve a desired aircraft response, the over-sensitivity of the rudder control system induced the pilot to make additional, essentially cyclic, corrective rudder inputs as he attempted to stabilize the aircraft. American Airlines, 2004, p. 60) Probable Cause of Flight AA587 Crash Flight AA587 crash was triggered by an unexpectedly sensitive response of the rudder to an initial, single pedal input by the pilot during a wake vortex encounter. Due to the unique characteristics in the aircraft’s flight control system design, the pilot became caught in an adverse APC/pilot involved oscillation mode as he attempted to counter the effects of that input. Specifically, after making a control wheel input followed by a rudder input intended to achieve a desired aircraft response, the over-sensitivity of the rudder control system induced the pilot to make additional, essentially cyclic, corrective rudder inputs as he attempted to stabilize the aircraft. Unknown to the pilot, because of the sensitivity of the rudder controls and the powerful nature of the hydraulically driven rudder actuators, these corrective inputs rapidly generated rupture loads. (American Airlines, 2004, p. 0) An aspect of Advanced Airplane Maneuvering Program (AAMP) training relative to upset recovery techniques introduced response time delays to roll inputs in the training simulator. Flight crews in training, when encountering the delayed responses during roll upsets, reverted to use of the rudder in order to provide the necessary roll response to initiate recovery.

Homosexuality, Nature or Nurture? Essays -- Homo Gay Lesbian

Homosexuality, Nature or Nurture? Homosexuality has become a large issue in our lives today. Gay Rights activists have been making their voices heard; this has attracted the attention of the population making them take notice of their cause. The church has not been able to get away from the powerful political and social pressure of homosexuality. Some churches have accepted homosexuality but many still do not accept homosexuals, saying it is unnatural and not what 'god' intended of man. The church claims that what ever decision has been made, it has been done so on the basis of Christian moral principles. The Old Testament clearly forbids homosexual practices and in Leviticus 20:13 it reads: "If there is a man who lies with a male as those who lie with a woman, both of them have committed a detestable act; they shall surely be put to death." (Pyne, 1992, http://www.probe.org/docs/homosex1.html) To address the issue of whether homosexuality derives from biological determinism (nature) or from the influences experienced from the environment around them (nurture), in 1973 the APA (American psychiatric Association) through much pressure from the Gay Rights Activists, classified homosexuality under the heading of sexual orientation disturbance. Sexual orientation refers to an individual's sexual attraction towards persons of a particular gender. Heterosexuals show this attraction to members of the opposite sex, homosexuals show it to members who are the same sex. According to Gross, McIlveen, Coolican, Clamp and Russell, 2000, three to four percent of men are exclusively homosexual compared to around one percent of women. Acc... ...new introduction: Hodder & Stoughton Pyne, 1992, http://www.probe.org/docs/homosex1.html, 04/2002 Saunders and Pickering, 1997, http://www.cmf,org,uk/pubs/nucleus/nucoct97/cause.htm : 04/2002 Bibliography Bailey, 1991, http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/user/scotts/bulgarians/nature-nurture/bailey-pil.html :04/2002 Blum, 1997, http://www.worldpolicy.org/americas/sexorient/twins.html : 04/2002 Bourne, Russo, 1998,Psychology: behaviour in context: Norton. Cameron, http://www.familyresearchinst.org/FRI_EduPamphlet5.html :04/2002 McIlveen, Coolican, Clamp and Russell, 2000, Psychology, a new introduction: Hodder & Stoughton Pyne, 1992, http://www.probe.org/docs/homosex1.html, 04/2002 Saunders and Pickering, 1997, http://www.cmf,org,uk/pubs/nucleus/nucoct97/cause.htm : 04/2002

Monologue: High School Essay

Do you realize that tonight is the most important night of my life? Oh my God! Do you? It’s like totally more important than cheer tryouts. It’s more important than my first kiss, the first day of middle school, the first day of high school, the first day of Driver’s Ed, more important than my driver’s license, more important than any of my ex-boyfriends, more important than my current boyfriends†¦ I mean friend. It is the pinnacle of the high school experience. The prom. Prom night. The night that I will remember for the rest of my life. I spent six hundred dollars on my dress. Anyway, Jane Hickman spent a thousand†¦ She’s a total daddy’s girl. For her sixteenth birthday, her Dad bought her a brand new Ford Explorer. For my sixteenth birthday I only got a two year old Taurus. Whatever. Some girls are just born with a silver spoon in their mouth. She’s such a snobby little rich girl. A little rich girl whose parents buy her anything she wants. Her parents have a swimming pool and a tennis court. All we have is a Jacuzzi. One time she told me she (Makes quote signs with her fingers. ) liked my outfit. She’s such a snob. I know what she meant. She was making fun of my new designer jeans. She thinks they’re out of fashion already. Slut. Oh well, I’m not going to let Jane Hickman ruin the most important night of my life. My six hundred dollar dress is way more stylish that that over-priced rag she’s going to’ wear. That little bitch. That little slut. I’m going to’ be homecoming royalty for sure. Homecoming queen! I hate Jane Hickman. love bite Hickman, ’cause she’s always got a love bite on her neck. That little crazy mamma better not be getting on the royal court. I’d just kill myself if she was homecoming queen. I’d kill myself! It’s bad enough her dress cost more. It’s bad enough she’s got a newer car. It’s bad enough she’s got a pool and a tennis court. I hate my parents. I can’t believe you’re related to my Mom. She’s so lame. At least you have money. We sure don’t. Why don’t we have a pool and a tennis court? My Mom is so lazy all she does is sit around at the computer. My Dad’s never around. He’s always at the (Makes quotes with her fingers again. ) office. Whatever that means. Like if he was at the (Makes quotes one last time. ) office, he’d be making money right? Well, maybe he needs to get his butt in gear and get his daughter a fifteen hundred dollar dress so she doesn’t look like a bag lady at the prom. That’s what I’m going to look like. A bag lady! Jane Hickman is going to’ be prom queen for sure. This is going to’ be the worst night of my life.

Inaugural Braves At Beautiful Chase Bank Park - 955 Words

Charleston Braves Dear Sponsor, We would like to THANK YOU for considering the opportunity to sponsor the Charleston Braves for the 2015 season! We are very excited for what the 2015 season has in store for our organization. We have a great deal of talented players who are going to give it their all every day they step onto the field. The Charleston Braves are a Triple-A minor league baseball team that is located in beautiful community. Playing at this level will help shape the future of the Major League affiliate. We believe in building, developing the skills and fundamentals of baseball. We are seeking sponsors who would like to be associated with this program. All of our home games are played at beautiful Chase Bank Park. In return for your sponsorship, your business will be advertised with a banner on the outfield fence, and on our website (http://charlestonbaseball.org/) and other social media outlets. You will also receive many other kinds of amenities in appreciation. All who come to the park during the spring and summer will view your banner! For those who have sponsored us in previous years, we THANK YOU and look forward to your continued support. Attached you will find a sheet with your sponsorship options. With your support, you can help continue our overall success as a organization. Thank you for all your Support!! Respectfully, Charleston Braves Charleston Braves Sponsorship Levels Levels Corporate Sponsor: $3000.00 24’X32’Show MoreRelatedBusiness Journalism in India26104 Words   |  105 Pagesno regulators like SEBI * It was a regulated regime and there was a ‘license raj’ * India was cocooned economy where flying was a luxury * Journalists also carried a Nehruvian Socialist sort of legacy * 1969: Banks were nationalised * 1976: Emergency was imposed * 1991: Indian economic reforms were initiated * Harshad Mehta Scam in 1993 * The Indian stock market and investor saw a frenzy * The Indian middle-class saw